Author Details

An important aspect of research into adolescent development involves an understanding of what adolescents do in their spare time. The psychological literature indicates that a number of attempts have been made to understand adolescent leisure activity behaviour but it is often inhibited by the numerous definitions of the meaning of leisure. Langenhove (1992) considered that leisure could be specifically measured in terms of frequency of participation in an activity, time allocated to the activity, and the amount of money spent. Leisure is also considered to be a state of mind, a consequence of self-expression (Gunter, 1987) or some activity primarily participated in for enjoyment (Larson & Richards, 1994). The type of activity that individuals select to accommodate their concept of leisure is also variable.  Activity that may be deemed to constitute leisure for one person may not appeal to another (Tinsley & Tinsley, 1986).

Selection of leisure items in which adolescents participate has largely been derived from interviews or questionnaires (Caltabiano & Caltiabiano, 1994; Gordon & Caltabiano, 1996; Raymore, Barber, Eccles & Godbey, 1999). Several studies classify the activities according to the nature of the activity itself, or its function. An Australian nationwide leisure participation survey grouped adolescent activities as social/cultural, sport and recreation, or home based activities (Darcy, 1994). Another Australian study classified 83 leisure activities as outdoor/active/sports activities, social leisure or cultural-hobbies leisure (Caltabiano,1995). In a later study Gordon and Caltabiano (1996) constructed an ‘Adolescent Leisure-Time Use Inventory’ and classified the selected activities as passive, active or social leisure. Kleiber, Larson and Csikszentmihalyi (1986) viewed leisure behaviour in the context of ‘effort’ and ‘demand’. Activities were classified as ‘relaxed leisure’, including socializing, watching TV and other more passive activities, and  ‘transitional leisure’ that incorporated activities such as games, artwork, sports and hobbies.

Coleman’s (1979) focal theory draws attention to the relational aspect of the adolescents’ lifestyle behaviour. Focal theory as discussed by Coleman and by Hendry, Schucksmith, Love and Glendinning (1993) argues that considerable individual differences occur in an adolescent’s activity selection and degree of participation. At different ages particular kinds of relationship patterns come into focus; heterosexual, peer and parental relationships, but with no pattern being specific to one age group only (Coleman, 1979). Hendry et al. (1993) found that organized activities peak at age 13-14 years with a gradual decrease in later age groups. Gender differences were also apparent in several investigations, with observations of more frequent sports participation and outdoor activities amongst males (Caltabiano & Caltabiano, 1994; Hendry et al., 1993; Savage & Scott, 1998). Males are also more likely to ‘hang around’ with other males, whereas females are more inclined to visit, and to be visited by, their female friends, choosing more home based activities (Hendry et al., 1993; Raymore et al., 1999).

The transitional nature of adolescent relationships is widely reported, generally indicating a stronger preference for peer relationships as the adolescent matures, with a corresponding tendency to reduce time with the family (Hendry et al., 1993;  Montemeyer, 1982;  Quaglia & Perry, 1995). The type of activities that adolescents engage in with the family tend to be task oriented (Montemeyer, 1982) and ‘hanging around’ occurs with peers (Quaglia & Perry, 1995). The comparison of lifestyles of adolescents in different locations has received little attention. More broadly, the dramatic changes that have occurred in the socioeconomic and social fabric of rural areas in several countries have produced significant problems. Attention has been drawn to high unemployment, poverty, and reduced government and health services. The decline of small towns and the increasing exodus of young people to larger towns and cities have eroded the traditional support network of family and friends (Baume & Clinton, 1997; Dudley, Waters, Kelk & Howard, 1992; National Rural Health Alliance, 1998; Plunkett, Henry & Knaub, 1999).

Most discussions about restrictions affecting rural adolescents’ lifestyles fit into the category of ‘structural constraints’. Structural constraints include the cost of the activity, being unsure about where to participate, and lack of transportation. All of these factors have been found to be a deterrent to participation in activities in any setting (Jackson & Rucks, 1993), but they occur more frequently in rural areas (Institute of Rural Health, 1998; Somerville, 1992). Not only are young people in rural areas purported to be significantly affected by the impact of structural adjustment in the agricultural economy, but are also affected by other factors such as health problems, leisure boredom, lack of transport and poor access to leisure facilities (Institute of Rural Health, 1998; Pothier, 1991). Nevertheless few studies outline how adolescents spend their free time or offer comparisons between rural and urban areas although Quaglia and Perry (1995) and Gordon and Caltabiano (1996) both found that urban adolescents engaged in more social leisure than rural adolescents who preferred more passive pastimes.

Dempsey (1990) in his study of rural lifestyles, commented on community standards and the pressure to conform, believing these influences to be powerful enough to encourage people to leave the area. Young people interviewed in another study of a regional town conveyed their views about the distrust and value judgements that members of the community formed if they deviated from accepted norms. For example, if the young people chose to dress differently, this was often construed as an indication of accompanying drug use (Schultz, 1996).
The focus of leisure and lifestyle research has generally tended to focus on negative behaviours. The majority of studies have also been conducted in the United States with college and with adult populations, hence reducing the opportunity for accurate comparisons with Australian groups. Another difficulty lies in the tendency of researchers to select the activities for the construction of questionnaires without sufficient consultation with the populations they are studying. This factor is most relevant when subjects in different locations are included in the research. The extent to which subjects participate in activities in the community for instance, may be inaccurate if activities common to a particular location are not included. Questionnaires designed to study adolescent activity behaviour are often too specific to reflect the range of activities that the adolescent engages in throughout their daily lives, and are inclined to neglect home based and self initiated activities.

Alternate attempts to investigate adolescence lifestyle with more accuracy are provided by the ‘Diary’, or ‘Experience sampling’ methods (Ralph, Merrall, Hart, Porter & Su-Neo, 1995; Smith, 1997; Stiles, Gibbon & Peters, 1993). However, these methods are time consuming for researchers to undertake as subjects are required to conduct the procedures on their own during their daily routine. Retrospective surveys, or ‘Free listing questionnaires’ that rely on adolescents’ memory, lack precise information about specific occasions, and the possibility of distortion resulting from inaccurate recall (Smith, 1997). Darcy (1994) considered that the length of reference time used in surveys had a crucial effect on the participation rate in regard to researching activity level: the longer the period, the more opportunities to list an activity more than once, and greater increase in the likelihood of inaccuracies. Darcy considered that ‘Weekly’ participation rate is a useful measure of activity participation.

The present study was intended to investigate the complete range of activities in which adolescents participate in out of school hours using a directed method of recall focussed on student recollections of activities undertaken over the two weeks immediately preceding the survey. The aim of the study was to examine the effect of age, location and gender upon adolescent activity in metropolitan and rural communities.

METHOD

Participants
Two metropolitan secondary schools and one rural secondary school were selected from locations in Victoria, Australia. Ethics approval was obtained for the study, and parental and student permission given for the 352 year 7-11 students who agreed to participate. The rural sample comprised 73 males and 77 females; the metropolitan sample included 88 males and 114 females.

Instrument
The ‘Adolescent Activities Diary’ (Rowlands & Harvey, submitted) is a two page diary format which allows students to list all the activities they had participated in out of school hours, for the preceding two weeks. Students begin the process by setting out all the out of school activities engaged in ‘yesterday,” then the day before that, and so on until the preceding two weeks have been entered. Students are requested to remember as many activities as possible including team sports, activities they participated in around their local community, and activities engaged in alone or with family members or peers. Students are given 30-45 minutes to fill in the schedule and are permitted to check their regular diaries to prompt their memories, and to engage in brief discussions with peers when appropriate.

The Adolescent Activities Diaries were first analysed by recording all activities that each student listed at least once. The total number of activities was calculated for each student. The entire list of activities was then categorized into three groups. The categories were devised by the researchers based on the major context of the activities.

(a) Authority
Activities included in this category were those that were organized by adults i.e. all team sports, clubs, associations and sport’s training. Educational activities such as music lessons, drama and concert preparations were relevant, and part-time employment.

(b) Family
This category included all activities that students participated in with their family members; family celebrations, days out, and shopping or visiting for instance. Helping family members with care of the home, car and garden was applicable, as were supporting siblings by accompanying them to events to watch their sport’s game or concert etc.

(c) Independent
This category of activities describes those pastimes that were initiated by adolescents, either in the home, or in the community. Relevant activities were listening to music, computer/video games, creative activities, bike riding and skateboarding etc. Social activities that were peer organized were represented in this category also.

Procedure
Each school principal agreed to the students completing the survey during regular class sessions.

RESULTS
Initially, a 2(gender) x  2(age) x  2(location) analysis of variance on total number of activities was performed with the same analysis repeated based on the three categories of activities – Authority, Family, and Independent. Univariate and 2 X 2 analyses of variance were used to investigate the extent of differences found significant according to age, gender and location. Age was grouped into two categories, Junior = Years 7-8, and Senior = Years 9-11. Location was grouped according to attendance at rural or metropolitan schools. Significance was set at the p<.05 level.

A significant effect for total number of activities was obtained, F(22, 329) = 1.53, p< .01, with location, F(22, 329) = 1.59, p< .05, and gender, F(22, 329) = 2.29, p < .01, significantly related to the number of activities reported. Age was not a significant influence, F(22,329) = .80, ns.

A gender by location 2 x 2 ANOVA was carried out for number of activities. An interaction effect was observed, F(22, 329) = 5.69, p< .05, with main effects for location, F(22, 329) = 16.87, p<.05, and also for gender, F(22,359) = 30.4, p<.01. Oneway ANOVA results indicated that females in both locations participated in a similar number of activities, whereas the number of activities of metropolitan male students was significantly greater than for rural male students, F(1,159) = 15.44, p<.001. Gender differences proved to be significant in each location with female students participating in more activities than male students overall. This trend was more apparent in the rural sample, F(1,148) = 27.2, p<.000, than between male and female students in metropolitan locations, F(1, 200) = 5.72, p< .05.

An age x location ANOVA was carried out for number of activities. An interaction effect was not found, but there was a main effect for location, F(22, 329) = 10.00, p< .01; this was significant for senior students attending the metropolitan schools who participated in more activities than senior students in the rural location, F(1, 184) = 11.87, p< .01.

Analysis of activity level for each category
A significant effect for Authority was obtained, F(10, 341) = 1.73, p < 05. The tests showed that location, F(10, 341) = 3.166, p< .01, differed significantly with respect to activities categorized as authority based. Age and gender effects were not a relevant influence upon activity level in this category but there were significant differences between rural and metropolitan female students with the latter listing significantly more activities, F(1, 189) = 5.01), p< .05, than females from the rural school. Even greater differences were observed for the male samples; metropolitan males participating in significantly more activities, F(1, 159) = 20.80, p< .01 than rural males.

A significant effect for the Family category was obtained, F(11,340) = 2.34, p< .01, with age, F(11,340) = 1.90, p< .05, and also gender differences, F(11,340) = 4.69, p<.01, significant. In both locations, females participated in more family activities than males, with rural differences yielding, F(1,148) = 7.13, p< .01, and in the metropolitan location, F(1,200) = 22.2, p < .01. Male students participated in the least number of activities overall with family activities decreasing with age, a result of particular significance in the rural group, F(1,148) = 8.06, p< .01.
A significant effect for the category, Independent was obtained, F(16, 335) = 1.38, p < .05 but with gender, F(16, 335) = 1.88, p< .05, the only variable that differed significantly. An interaction effect for gender and location across this category, F(3,348) = 12.08, p<.01 was also found. A main effect for gender was observed, F(3, 348) = 11.1, p< .01, with significantly more activities occurring amongst rural females than males from the same location, F(1, 148) = 19.40, p < .01.

DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate the range of activities in which adolescents participate in out of school hours, and to examine the relationships between age, location and gender upon the number of activities listed.

The results of the total number of activities that adolescents listed in the ‘Adolescent Activity Diary’ revealed some pertinent differences between adolescents in the rural and metropolitan samples. Although females in both locations participated in more activities than their male contemporaries, it was the greater gender difference occurring in the rural sample that was of greatest interest. If the gender difference between activity levels of male and female adolescents was consistent in both locations, it could be proposed that the differences were due either to the possibility of differences in the number of choices of gender specific activities, or to variations in activity level relative to length of time spent on particular activities. However, the lower activity level of rural males suggests other contributing influences to the lifestyle of this group of adolescents. Structural constraints such as the availability of activities and transport in rural areas, and financial considerations (Institute of Rural Health, 1998; Pothier, 1991) were unlikely, as these factors would be expected to affect rural females as well. What is more credible is the influence of interpersonal and intrapersonal issues as identified by Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991).

Additional understanding of the gender differences in activity level in the rural sample can be derived from the age x location analysis. The fact that activity level increased with age except in the case of senior rural males is of some concern, particularly as research has indicated that there is generally a peak of physical activity (Gordon & Caltabiano, 1996), sports participation and outdoor activities by males (Hendry et al., 1993; Savage & Scott, 1998) in this age group. If structural factors were gender specific, a lower activity level would be expected in the junior rural sample as well.

The amount of activity that adolescents participate in during their free time has not really interested researchers previously, but the fact that the range of total number of activities listed by the entire sample ranged from three to 27 activities indicated that these variations are broad enough to warrant attention. The differences in participation rate of adolescents in the various groupings signifies that total number of activities is a valuable factor in research enabling a fresh approach to understanding adolescent development.

The analysis of the categories, Authority, Family and Independent revealed further differences between the groups of adolescents. Location was a prominent factor influencing activity level in the category Authority.  Metropolitan males and females equally included activities that involved the presence of an adult in some capacity. The range of activities included team sports, additional education and training, and involvement in arts and drama, etc. Examination of some aspects of activities listed in this category revealed that team sport involvement was listed equally by metropolitan and rural adolescents overall. However, adolescents’ participation in activities associated with the arts, drama and performances were participated in three times more in the metropolitan sample than the rural sample.

Additional educational training such as attendance at Colleges of Technical and Further Training (TAFE) seminars and study towards a Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE), were listed twice as often in metropolitan areas. It is possible that structural constraints such as financial problems, availability of educational enrichment opportunities, and transport limitations are valid reasons for the disparity in the results. But it is also likely in the case of rural males, that additional factors such as rural cultural expectations as to what constitutes suitable activities may affect males’ participation. The issue of acceptance is critical for adolescents in rural areas as there are few alternatives to change peer groups (Schultz, 1996). The consequence of this limitation may be a tendency for adolescents to minimise or abandon their own interests to establish or maintain friendships with peers.  Adolescent males in rural areas may find choosing to learn the violin instead of playing football does little for peer acceptance, and they could feel isolated and vulnerable if they pursued their interest.

The category Family, represented all activities conducted with family members and relatives, whether it be for social occasions, helping or supporting family members in some capacity, or shopping trips. The higher incidence of female involvement in family activities may be explained by an expectation of family members that females should assist more in the home environment, and the fact that females generally prefer more home based activities (Hendry et al., 1993; Raymore et al., 1999).

The lower level of male involvement in family activities may be attributed to the tendency of adolescent males to seek more physical and outdoor activities (Gordon & Caltabiano, 1996), limiting the time and desire to communicate and participate in family activities. Examination of particular aspects of this category revealed that shopping trips occurred two and a half times more frequently in the metropolitan sample, and trips to relatives and family events were one and a half times more likely. It is evident that some activities are location specific due to structural reasons, particularly transport requirements. It is possible that there are differences in parental supervision of adolescents in rural towns compared to metropolitan areas that may serve to increase the freedom and mobility of rural adolescents. The close proximity of friends and relatives in country locations may engender greater parental approval of their adolescent’s desire to explore the neighbourhood.

The category Independent, represented activities that were self or peer directed, participated in by adolescents at home and in the community. The gender differences evident in the rural sample reflected two extremes; females listed more of these kinds of activities, and rural males listed far less than the three other groups. Self or peer directed activities require that adolescents initiate their own activities, and also decide when to finish one activity and start another. These activities require socialisation skills, negotiating skills, communication skills, and a variety of interests with which to associate. The disparity between the female and male samples from the rural groups in this category of activity may reflect some of the interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints identified by Jackson and Rucks (1993). The particularly high level of activity recorded by country females is of interest. It appeared that they were able to maintain a consistent level of activity by their own endeavours. Perhaps this group of females was able to capitalise on the proposed additional freedom that country living offers, particularly for those who live in and close to the town. The ability to walk or ride to many parts of the town and district may enable more opportunities for individual pursuits and peer involvement. Research indicates that female adolescents are more likely to arrange visits with female peers (Raymore et al., 1999), thus increasing the possibility of peer organised socialisation. It is possible too that rural cultural norms may inhibit adolescent males from seeking a wider range of activities and utilising more opportunities to socialise.

Profile of males and female adolescents in metropolitan and rural locations
The results of activity level for male and females adolescents in metropolitan and rural locations revealed several important differences for each group.

Metropolitan females: The sample of metropolitan female adolescents were the most active, listing the highest number of activities in the majority of cases; these results also occurred in two of the categories of activities – Authority and Family. The lifestyle of this group of females appeared to include a wide variety of activities representing all aspects of home, family and community life, indicating a consistent level of activity in each category. It was also apparent that generally metropolitan female adolescents were able to organise their time sufficiently to accomplish this lifestyle, and to enlist sufficient support from the family to do so.

Metropolitan males: The activity level of metropolitan males was generally slightly lower than their female contemporaries in most categories. The difference occurred in family activities; metropolitan males listed fewer activities than female adolescents in both locations. The general picture of metropolitan male adolescents is similar to that of female adolescents in this location, except for a reduction in involvement with the family and relatives, and fewer occasions of assisting and supporting family members.

Rural females: Rural female adolescents listed fewer total activities overall than both males and females in the metropolitan areas, but listed more activities in the Independent category than all the remaining groups. It was evident that rural female adolescents exercised considerable independence in organising their lifestyle and incorporating ample socialisation experiences to maintain a high level of independent activity. The impression gained from these results is of a highly independent resourceful adolescent benefiting from accessibility to many activities, and perhaps enjoying more freedom than her metropolitan peers.

Rural males: Unfortunately, the lifestyle of the rural males was less inspiring with activity levels of this group deviating sharply from the trends of female adolescents overall and also metropolitan males. Their total activity level was the least of each group of adolescents – particularly amongst the senior males. This level of activity was also reflected in the two categories, ‘Authority’ and ‘Independent’. The only category in which country males achieved slightly more activities than metropolitan male adolescents was in regard to family activities. Rural males appear to be less involved overall in community and independent activities and appear to have a restricted range of activities, and fewer connections with peers.

There are limitations in the application of the results of this survey. The Adolescent Activities Diary does not take into account the length of time that each activity involved. It could be assumed that an adolescent who spent considerable time on one activity such as football or netball, might list fewer activities. However, if the main activity was one categorized as Authority, it was often the case that training sessions and social occasions with the club were also listed. Independent activities participated in with peers and siblings also could arise from an adolescent’s main sporting interest, hence increasing the total number of activities. These kinds of activities were generally organized in terms of when they were to occur, the location and the time period of participation. This meant the activities had clear beginnings and conclusions, allowing time for discrete changes of activities. On the other hand adolescents who listed few organized activities and mainly participated in ‘hanging around’ pursuits had less reason to cease the activity and commence another. The time spent with peers appeared to be open ended, and so fewer activities would be listed overall and often with minimal representation of activities in the ‘Authority’ category.

The research design did not examine the relationship between number of activities and variables such as emotional wellbeing and social skills. Therefore assumptions can not be made about the quality of lifestyle adolescents experience at different levels of activity or the characteristics of the adolescents concerned. For instance, are adolescents who participate in a higher number of activities more resilient than those adolescents who have a lower level of participation?  Further investigation of the variables associated with different levels of adolescent activity level may provide some additional insight into these relationships. The researchers’ subjective experiences of reading the total sample of activity diaries certainly indicated that further investigation of the effect of activity and lifestyle upon adolescent social and emotional wellbeing is promising (Rowlands & Harvey, submitted).

The most important aspect of the results of this study is the demonstration of significant differences between activity level of rural and metropolitan adolescents, and the additional gender differences observed. The representation of activities in the three categories ‘Authority’, ‘Family’ and ‘Independent’ provided considerable understanding of lifestyles of each gender in both locations.

References
Baume, P. J. M. & Clinton, M. E. (1997). Social and cultural patterns of suicide in young people in rural Australia. Australian Journal of Rural Health, 5, 115 – 120.

Caltabiano, M. L. (1995). Leisure orientation, coping style and personality. Australian Journal of Leisure and Recreation, 5, 24 – 31.

Caltabiano, M. L. & Caltabiano, N. J. (1994). Gender differences in subjective and behavioural aspects of leisure: Study 1. Australian Journal of Leisure and Recreation, 4, 12 – 21.

Coleman, J. C. (1979). The school years. London:  Methuen.

Crawford, D. W., Jackson, E. L. & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, 309 – 320.

Darcy, S. A. (1994). Australian leisure participation: The monthly data. Australian Journal of Leisure and Recreation, 4, 26 – 31.

Dempsey, K. (1990). Smalltown: A study of social inequality, cohesion and belonging. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Dudley, M., Waters, B., Kelk, N. & Howard, J. (1992). Youth suicide in New South Wales; Urban – rural trends. The Medical Journal of Australia, 156, 83 – 90.

Gordon, W. R. & Caltabiano, M. L. (1996). Urban – rural differences in adolescent self esteem, leisure boredom, and sensation – seeking as predictors of leisure – time usage and satisfaction. Adolescence, 31,  883 – 901.

Gunter, B. G. (1987). The leisure experience: Selected properties. Journal of Leisure Research, 19, 115 – 130.

Hendry, L. B., Schucksmith, J., Love, J. G. & Glendinning, A. (1993). Young people’s leisure and lifestyles. New York: Routledge.

Institute of Rural Health & the Health Promotion Unit of Powys Health Care NHS Trust (1998) Youth in rural areas are we addressing their health needs? A conference report. Wales: Zeneca Pharmeceuticals.

Jackson, E. L. & Rucks, V. C. (1993). Reasons for ceasing participation and barriers to participation; Further examination of constrained leisure as an internally homogenous concept. Leisure Studies, 15, 217 – 230.

Kleiber, D. A., Larson, R., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1986). The experience of leisure in adolescence. Journal of Leisure Research, 18, 169 – 176.

Langenhove, L. V. (1992). The identification of psychological aspects of leisure. Leisure Studies, 11, 147 – 156.

Larson, R. & Richards, M. H. (1994). Divergent realities; The emotional lives of mothers, fathers and adolescents. New York: Basic Books.

Montemeyer, R. (1982). The relationship between parent – adolescent conflict and the amount of time adolescents spend alone and with parents and peers. Child Development, 53, 1512 – 1519.

National Rural Health Alliance (1998). Suicide prevention in rural areas. Canberra: Author
Plunkett, S. W., Henry, C. S. & Knaub, P. K. (1999). Family stressor events, family coping, and adolescent adaptation in farm and ranch families. Adolescence, 34, 147 – 168.

Pothier, P.C. (1991). Demythologizing rural mental health. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 5, 119 – 120.

Quaglia, R. J. & Perry, C. M. (1995). A study of underlying variables affecting aspirations of rural adolescents. Adolescents, 30, 233 – 243.

Ralph, A.,  Merralls, L., Hart, L., Porter, J. S. & Su-Neo, A. T. (1995). Peer interactions, self concept, locus of control and avoidance of social situations of early adolescents. Australian Journal of Psychology, 47,  110 – 118.

Raymore, L. A., Barber, B. L., Eccles, L. S. & Godbey, G. C. (1999). Leisure behaviour pattern stability during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 79 – 103.

Rowlands, R.C. & Harvey, D.H.P. (submitted). The Adolescent Activities Diary. The Journal of Youth and Adolescence.

Savage, M. P. & Scott, L. B. (1998). Physical activity and rural middle school adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27,  245 – 253.

Schultz, W. (1996). ‘Outer urban v rural: Young people’s views of adolescent suicide.’ Unpublished Honours thesis: Victoria University of Technology.

Smith, T. E. (1997). Adolescent gender differences in time alone and time devoted to conversation. Adolescence, 32, 483 – 496.

Somerville, A. (1992). A bird in the ute is worth two in the bush: A discussion of the sexual health issues for rural young people. Latrobe University, Australia: Centre for the Study of Sexually Transmissable Diseases.

Stiles, A. S., Gibbons, J. L. & Peters, E. (1993). Adolescent’s view of work and leisure in the Netherlands and in the U.S. Adolescence, 28,  473 – 489.

Tinsley, H. E. A. & Tinsley, D. J. (1986). A theory of attributes, benefits, and causes of leisure experiences. Leisure Science, 8, 1 – 45.