Address for correspondence
Dr Suzanne McLaren
School of Behavioural & Social Sciences & Humanities
University of Ballarat
University Drive
Mt Helen Vic 3353
Australia |
Telephone: (03) 53279628
Fax: (03) 53279754
E-mail: s.mclaren@ballarat.edu.au |
Abstract
Living in rural areas has been linked to higher
incidences of stress, depression and suicide. One factor predictive
of such mental health indices is sense of belonging. Sense
of belonging refers to one’s experience of feeling valued, needed
and accepted within one’s environment, and the motivation to be
accepted in to that environment. The current research examined
whether rural-urban differences existed in sense of belonging, stress
and depression. A random community sample of Australian residents
was divided in to four groups, urban (n = 106), regional city (n
= 119), regional town (n = 82), and rural (n = 90). Residents
completed the Sense of Belonging Instrument (Hagerty & Patusky,
1995), the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein,
1983), and the Zung Depression Scale (Zung, 1965). Females
were shown to score higher on sense of belonging than males.
Analyses indicated that sense of belonging was a significant predictor
of stress and depression. Results demonstrated that place
of residence made a unique contribution to the prediction of stress
and depression, with less populated areas (more rural) reporting
less symptomatology. Despite previous research indicating
rural residents experience more mental health problems than urban
residents, the current study failed to show differences in the key
mental health correlate of sense of belonging. In
recent times, researchers have documented differences in mental
health between those who reside in differentially populated areas.
Research suggests that rural residents are likely to experience
more mental health problems, including psychiatric illness (Lawrence
& Williams, 1990; Mumford, Saeed, Ahmad, Latif, & Mubbashar,
1997; Wagenfeld, 1982), depression (Cheng, Soong, Chong, &
Lin, 1995; Hays & Zouari, 1995; Zimbelman, 1987), suicide
(Coleman, 1995; Dudley, Waters, Kelk, & Howard, 1992; Lohse,
1992; Pritchard, 1992), stress (Hays & Zouari, 1995; Johnson,
1998; Marsella, 1998) and alcohol dependence and abuse (Lee, Kwok,
Yamamoto, Rhee, Kim, Choi, & Lee, 1990).
A number of explanations have been offered
for the differing levels of mental health in rural and urban populations.
For example, economic hardship ‘on the farm’ has been associated
with increased psychological distress and dysfunction (Armstrong
& Schulman, 1990; Beeson & Johnson, 1987; Belyea &
Lobao, 1990). The economic changes evidenced in rural areas
have lead to a continual population decline and the closure of
many agriculture-dependent businesses (Davidson, 1989; O’Hare,
1988). A significant consequence of this altering population
base in rural areas is the loss of traditional formal support
systems such as community organisations, schools and hospitals
into larger relatively distant regional population centres (Quevillon
& Trenerry, 1983; Stewart, McKenry, Rudd, & Gavazzi, 1994;
Sullivan, Weinert, & Fulton, 1993).
The substantial economic and demographic
changes documented in rural areas have been associated with rural
residents reporting reduced satisfaction with their local community.
Specifically, rural residents have reduced satisfaction with community
life and lessened feelings of cohesion (Naples, 1994; Oberlander,
1990). Such perceptions of the local community give rise
to the possibility that sense of belonging within the rural community
has been reduced. This proposition has yet to be tested
empirically.
Abraham Maslow (1968) identified belonging
as a basic human need and an important attainment in the process
towards self-actualisation. People's everyday relationships with
others, along with the nature and perceptions of these relationships,
have become an increasingly important area of interest within
psychological research (Anant, 1967, 1969; Hagerty, Lynch-Sauer,
Patusky, Bouwsema, & Collier, 1992; Hagerty & Patusky,
1995; Hagerty, Williams, Coyne, & Early, 1996).
Researchers have sought to explain how
human interactions can influence physical and mental health and
to what degree. Humans are primarily social animals and most need
meaningful contact with others. For example, Baumeister and Leary
(1995) purported that human beings have an innate, pervasive drive
to form and maintain lasting, positive interpersonal relationships.
This innate quality in humans would have both survival and reproductive
benefits, thus it can be seen to have an evolutionary basis. A
lack of human interactions has been found to impact upon an individual's
formation of a personal identity and can affect every aspect of
their lives from their personal development through to social
relationships and mental health (Anant, 1967).
Sense of belonging can be defined as the
experience of both personal involvement and integration within
a system or environment (Hagerty et al., 1992). Two important
dimensions of sense of belonging exist: a person must feel valued
or important within their environment (psychological) and further,
a person must have the desire and ability to develop a sense of
belonging (antecedent) (Hagerty, et al., 1992).
Sense of belonging has been identified
as necessary for psychological well-being (Thompson-Fullilove,
1996). Research indicates that individuals who report a
lesser sense of belonging are more likely to report lower levels
of self-esteem, self-worth and self-sufficiency (Lee & Robbins,
1998). In addition, a deficit in sense of belonging may
result in higher levels of anxiety and associated disorders (Herbert,
1997; Lee & Robbins, 1998), loneliness (Lloyd, 1985), depression
(Hagerty et al., 1996; Rice, 1999), suicide ideation (Lewinsohn,
Rohde, & Seeley, 1993; Rice, 1999) and in general reduced
psychological and physiological functioning (Ganster & Victor,
1988; Greenberg, 1984; Schroeder & Costa, 1984; Toates, 1995).
Research has consistently shown that sense
of belonging varies as a function of gender (Davidson, Balswick,
& Halverson, 1980; Hagerty et al., 1996; Lloyd, 1985). It
has been found that the relationships between sense of belonging
and indicators of both social and psychological functioning are
stronger for women than men (Hagerty et al., 1996).
Other research has shown that female college students low in sense
of belonging experienced more stress, anxiety and depression than
male students low in sense of belonging (Mallinckrodt & Leong,
1992).
In summary, sense of belonging is a fundamental
component of mental health. Given that individuals who are
low in sense of belonging are likely to experience more psychological
problems than those high in sense of belonging, and that rural
residents are likely to report more psychological problems than
urban residents, the current research aimed to investigate if
sense of belonging, stress and depression varied as a function
of place of residence. The research also investigated if
gender interacted with place of residence to effect levels of
sense of belonging. Further, the research investigated sense
of belonging and place of residence as predictors of stress and
depression.
Method
Participants
A total of 395 community members from the
state of Victoria, Australia, participated in the study (13% response
rate). The sample comprised of 70% females (n = 279) and
30% males (n = 116). The respondents were divided into four
groups by their location of residence: urban (n = 105), regional
city (n = 119), regional town (n = 81) and rural (n = 90).
Average age of the sample was 40.93 years (SD = 14.80).
The demographic details for males and females for each of the
residential groups can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1
Measures
A questionnaire package was utilised consisting of a covering
letter, a reply paid envelope, a demographic page providing general
information about each participant, the Sense of Belonging Instrument
(SOBI, Hagerty & Patusky, 1995), the Perceived Stress Scale
(Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), and the Zung Depression
Scale (Zung, 1965). The demographic section of the questionnaire
asked participants to report their age, gender, marital status,
postcode, highest education level achieved, and occupation.
The Sense of Belonging Instrument (SOBI) is a 33-item, self-report
instrument consisting of two separately scored scales, SOBI-P
(psychological state) and SOBI-A (antecedents) (Hagerty &
Patusky, 1995). The 18 questions of the psychological subscale
were designed to assess an individual’s experience of feeling
valued, needed and accepted, and the perception of fit or connectedness
within a system or environment (Hagerty & Patusky, 1995).
The 15 questions of the antecedent subscale were designed to assess
antecedents or precursors to sense of belonging, such as energy
for involvement, potential and desire for meaningful involvement
(Hagerty & Patusky, 1995). Respondents were asked to
give ratings on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree;
4 = strongly agree) to questions designed to measure sense of
belonging such as “I often wonder if there is any place on earth
where I really fit in”; “I generally feel that people accept me”
(psychological state) and “It is important to me that I am valued
or accepted by others”; “I just don't feel like getting involved
with people” (antecedents). Higher scores indicate
a greater sense of belonging. Research suggests that the
SOBI-P is a valid and reliable measure of sense of belonging with
an internal consistency co-efficient alpha of .93 and a test-retest
reliability correlation of .84 (Hagerty & Patusky, 1995).
The SOBI-A is also a valid and reliable measure of belonging with
an internal consistency co-efficient alpha of .72 and a test-retest
reliability correlation of .66 (Hagerty & Patusky, 1995).
The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen et al., 1983) is a 14-item
questionnaire designed to measure the degree to which an individual
appraises their life as stressful. This scale focuses upon the
individual's subjective experience of stress thus resulting in
a global measure of perceived stress. Each item requires the participant
to indicate how often they have felt or thought a certain way
within the last month prior to completing the questionnaire. Participants
rated their responses on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = Never; 4
= Very Often). Some examples of questions are; "In the last month
how often have you felt nervous or ‘stressed’?" and "In the last
month how often have you felt that you were on top of things?".
Higher scores are indicative of higher levels of stress. This
scale has well documented test-retest reliability (r = .85) and
validity (r = .65) (Cohen et al., 1983).
Depression was measured using the Zung (1965) Depression Scale
(ZDS), which is a 20-item self-report instrument requiring the
participant to rate their experience of depressive symptoms at
the present time on a 5 point Likert scale (1 = a little of the
time; 4 = most of the time). Statements on this scale include
“I feel down-hearted and blue” to “I feel hopeful about the future”.
Higher scores indicate higher depression levels. This scale
is psychometrically sound, with a Cronbach internal reliability
of .82 (De Jonghe & Baneke, 1989). Validity and the power
to discriminate between depressed and nondepressed participants
have been found to be acceptable (De Jonghe & Baneke, 1989).
Procedure
Selection of participants followed a stratified random sampling
procedure (Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1990). Rather
than making just two groups (metropolitan and non-metropolitan),
the sample was divided in to four groups based on population (Dwyer,
Barton, & Vogel, 1994): urban (the capital city of Melbourne;
postcodes 3000-3200); regional cities (Ballarat, Bendigo, and
Geelong; population above 50,000); regional towns (population
from 7,500 to 50,000); and rural (open country farm and non-farm
settings of fewer than 2,500 people).
Randomly selected postcodes for all four strata were generated.
Postcodes were then supplied to the Listbank Company, which generated
random mailing lists from Electoral Rolls. The details of
the procedure were as follows. For the urban group, 30 questionnaire
packages were distributed to each of 25 randomly selected ‘urban’
postcodes. For the regional city group, 250 questionnaire
packages were distributed to ‘regional city’ postcodes (Ballarat,
Bendigo and Geelong). For the regional towns, all 20 ‘regional
town’ postcodes in the state were included. Out of the twenty
towns, 42 questionnaire packages were distributed to the two most
populated towns, and 37 questionnaire packages were delivered
to each of the remaining eighteen towns. For the rural group,
one postcode was generated per 6,000 residents per shire, and
15 questionnaire packages were distributed to each of the 50 randomly
selected postcodes. A total of 3,000 questionnaire packs
were posted to a random sample of Australians- 750 urban, 750
regional cities, 750 regional towns and 750 rural residents.
Results
A significance level of p < .05 was adopted for all analyses.
Reliability coefficients
Reliability coefficients were calculated for the two subscales
of the SOBI, the PSS and the ZDS. Results indicated satisfactory
internal reliability: SOBI-P m = .95,
SOBI-A m = .82, PSS m
= .88, and ZDS m = .84.
Preliminary analyses
Preliminary analyses were conducted to test for differences between
the four residential groups on the variables of age, marital status
and education level. Results indicated that age was significantly
different across the groups, F(3, 391) = 3.60. Post hoc
analyses, using Bonferroni corrections for Type 1 error, indicated
that the urban residents were significantly younger than the regional
town residents.
Chi-square analyses were used to test for differences between
the four groups on the categorical demographic data. It
was evident that urban participants were less likely to be married,
Pearson c2 (3, N = 398) = 35.24, Cramérs V =
.17, whereas rural and regional town residents were more likely
to have left formal education earlier than those in the more urban
regions (urban and regional city), Pearson c2 (3, N
= 398) = 42.47, Cramérs V = .19.
The variables of age, marital status and education were entered
as covariates in all subsequent analyses.
Rural-Urban comparisons
The means and standard deviations for each group of residents
for the subscales of the SOBI, PSS and ZDS can be seen in Table
2. A two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) demonstrated no differences
between the four groups of residents on the SOBI-P, F(3, 384)
= 0.86. There was a distinct trend for females to score
higher on the SOBI-P than males, F(1, 384) = 3.84, p = 0.05.
There was no interaction between place of residence and gender,
F(3, 384) = 1.15.
A second ANCOVA indicated similar results for the SOBI-A.
Results demonstrated that scores on the SOBI-A did not differ
as a function of place of residence, F(3, 384) = 0.45. Females
scored significantly higher than males, F(1, 384) = 5.25.
Again, no interaction was evident between place of residence and
gender, F(3, 384) = 0.15.
A third ANCOVA indicated that stress did not vary according to
place of residence, F(3 384) = 1.33, nor gender, F(1, 384) = 0.01.
An interaction between place of residence and gender was not evident,
F(3, 384) = 0.20.
The final ANCOVA demonstrated that depression also did not differ
as a function of place or residence, F(3,384) = 1.78, or gender,
F(1, 384) = 0.01. Again, an interaction between place of
residence and gender was not evident, F(3, 384) = 0.36.
Table 2
In light of there being no significant differences between the
four groups on each of the dependent measures, the four groups
of residents were reduced to two groups: Urban (Urban and Regional
City) and Rural (Regional Towns and Rural). The above analyses
were repeated. The two groups of residents did not differ
on the SOBI-P, F(1, 388) = 0.71, the SOBI-A, F(1, 388) = 0.56,
or the PSS, F(1, 388) = 3.11. Urban residents, however,
reported significantly more depression than rural residents, F(1,
388) = 4.46. The above results for gender were replicated,
and there were no interactions between place of residence and
gender for the dependent variables.
Sense of Belonging and
Place of Residence as Predictors of Stress
A Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis (HMRA) was performed
to assess the adequacy of the two sense of belonging subscales
as predictors of stress. HMRA was chosen due to earlier results
indicating gender differences in sense of belonging. Gender
was entered first in to the HMRA regression so as to offer statistical
control and provide a more pure measure of the effects of sense
of belonging on stress (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).
The two subscales of the SOBI were entered at the second step.
At the third step, place of residence was entered to assess the
unique contribution of this factor as a predictor of stress.
The results of the HMRA are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
As seen in Table 3, gender was not a significant contributor
to the prediction of stress, R2Change = .00, F (1, 393) = 1.53.
An examination of the t-values indicated that gender did not add
significantly to the predictive power, t (393) = -1.23.
Further, the regression analysis indicated that sense of belonging
scores explained a significant 33% of the variance, R2 Change
= 0.33, F (2, 391) = 95.62. An examination of the t-values
indicated that only sense of belonging psychological scores added
significantly to the predictive power of the equation, t (393)
= -13.21.
Results indicated that living in more populated regions was associated
with elevated levels of stress. Examination of partial correlation
coefficients (controlling for gender) demonstrated significant
negative relationships (SOBI-P; r (393) = -.57; SOBI-A; r (393)
= -.17), indicating that as sense of belonging decreased, stress
level increased. It was also evident at step 2 that gender
made a significant contribution to the regression equation, t(393)
= 2.85.
Results indicated that place of residence made a unique contribution
to the prediction of stress, R2 Change = .01, F (1,
390) = 6.02. At step 3, gender, t(393) = 2.86, and sense
of belonging psychological subscale, t(393) = 13.21, continued
to make significant contributions to the regression equation.
Sense of Belonging and
Place of Residence as Predictors of Depression
A second HMRA was performed to assess the extent to which sense
of belonging and place of residence predict depression.
Consistent with the previous HMRA, gender was entered in the first
step, sense of belonging was entered second, and place of residence
was entered third. Results of the HMRA can be seen in Table
4.
Table 4
As seen in Table 4, gender was not a significant contributor
to the prediction of stress, R2Change = .00, F (1, 393) = 0.65.
An examination of the t-values indicated that gender did not add
significantly to the predictive power, t (393) = -0.81.
The regression analysis demonstrated that sense of belonging
scores explained a significant 38% of the variance, R2 Change
= 0.38, F (2, 391) = 118.93. The t-values showed that, once
again, only sense of belonging psychological scores added significantly
to the predictive power of the equation, t (393) = -13.90. Examination
of partial correlation coefficients (controlling for gender) demonstrated
significant negative relationships (SOBI-P; r (393) = -.61; SOBI-A;
r (393) = -.27), indicating that as sense of belonging decreased,
depression increased. At step 2, gender made a significant
contribution to the regression equation, t(393) = 2.70.
Further, results indicated that place of residence made a unique
contribution to the prediction of depression, explaining 1% of
the variance, R2 Change = .01, F (1, 390) = 10.04.
It was evident that living in more populated areas was associated
with higher levels of depression. Both gender t(393) = 2.72,
and the psychological subscale of sense of belonging, t(393) =
13.94, made significant contributions to the regression equation
at step 3.
Discussion
Previous research has indicated that residents living in rural
areas are more likely to experience poor mental health, as indicated
by elevated levels of stress (Hays & Zouari, 1995; Johnson,
1998; Marsella, 1998), depression (Cheng et al., 1995; Hays &
Zouari, 1995; Zimbelman, 1987), suicide (Coleman, 1995; Dudley
et al., 1992; Lohse, 1992; Pritchard, 1992), psychiatric illness
(Lawrence & Williams, 1990; Mumford et al., 1997; Wagenfeld,
1982) and alcohol dependence and abuse (Lee et al., 1990).
A separate body of research has identified sense of belonging
as a predictor of mental health (Ganster & Victor, 1988; Greenberg,
1984; Hagerty et al., 1996; Herbert, 1997; Lee & Robbins,
1998; Lewinsohn et al., 1993; Lloyd, 1985; Rice, 1999; Schroeder
& Costa, 1984; Toates, 1995). The current study aimed
to investigate if rural residents felt a lessened sense of belonging
than urban residents, as well as higher levels of stress and depression.
Further, the study aimed to investigate if sense of belonging
and place of residence were significant predictors of stress and
depression. Although results did not indicate mean differences
in sense of belonging, stress and depression as a function of
place of residence when four groups were used, a significant difference
was evident for depression when gross measures of “urban” and
“rural” were employed. Further, where one lived was seen
to predict stress and depression. Place of residence was
seen to be a unique predictor of stress and depression, indicating
that increased rurality was associated with lower scores.
The psychological component of sense of belonging was a significant
predictor of stress and depression, such that a lessened sense
of belonging was associated with elevated stress and depression.
The results demonstrating sense of belonging as being similar
in rural areas compared to more populated environs were not expected.
Evidence suggests that the nature of rural communities has changed
substantially, with the economic downturn of the 1980s forcing
people to leave rural areas (Davidson, 1989; O’Hare, 1988).
Consequently, those living in rural areas have seen major services
close (Quevillon & Trenerry, 1983; Stewart et al., 1994; Sullivan
et al., 1993). In light of the economic and social changes
witnessed by rural residents, satisfaction with their local community
has decreased. Research has shown that rural residents report
lessened feelings of cohesion in their community, as well as reduced
satisfaction with community life (Naples, 1994; Oberlander, 1990).
In light of such perceptions, it was reasonable to expect that
rural residents would report a lessened sense of belonging in
their community than their urban counterparts. Results,
however, did not support this expectation.
Examination of the demographics of the sample indicated that
rural respondents were more likely to be married than urban respondents.
Although marital status was entered as a covariate in analyses,
it is important to acknowledge that a body of research indicates
that marriage offers benefits to individuals, such as social support,
that result in better mental health. For example, married
people are less likely to be admitted as an in-patient to a psychiatric
facility (Gutierrez-Lobos, Woelfl, Scherer, Anderer, & Schmidl-Mohl,
2000) and to experience depression (Holicky & Charlifue, 1999)
than non-married persons. Not surprisingly, bereaved persons
are more likely to be depressed, and to show significant decline
in mental health, morale and social functioning, mainly due to
social isolation (Bennett, 1998; Koropeckyj-Cox, 1998; Wells &
Stacey, 1998). Further, married persons, especially men,
are less likely to commit suicide (Kposowa, 2000), and are more
likely to live longer (Lichtenstein, Gatz, & Berg, 1998; Trovato,
1998). Therefore, the sense of belonging that one achieves
through marriage and/or family may be critical to psychological
well-being and when the marriage is disrupted or ended, there
may be significant consequences (Pennebaker, 1985).
Examination of gender differences indicated that women reported
higher sense of belonging scores than men on both the psychological
and antecedent subscales. These findings indicate that women want
to feel integrated within their environment (psychological) and
have the desire to become involved in their environment (antecedent)
to a greater extent than men. This finding is corroborated
by previous research that indicates that sense of belonging is
more important to women on both social and psychological levels
(Hagerty et al., 1996; Lloyd, 1985; Mallinckrodt & Leong,
1992). In contrast, the lower level of sense of belonging
in men may be the subject of further research. The distinct
gender differences in sense of belonging have important implications
for mental health and treatment interventions. For example,
research has shown that interventions aimed at increasing communication
between men have facilitated the development of sense of belonging
in men with psychiatric disabilities (Clark, Goering, & Tomlinson,
1991). The literature suggests that by increasing sense
of belonging, mental health may also benefit.
Indeed, the results of the current study indicated that the psychological
component of sense of belonging was a significant predictor of
stress and depression in this community sample. Previous
research has indicated that sense of belonging is related to a
range of mental health indices, including depression (Hagerty
et al., 1996; Rice, 1999), anxiety and associated disorders (Herbert,
1997; Lee & Robbins, 1998), and suicide ideation (Lewinsohn
et al., 1993; Rice, 1999). These findings reinforce
the argument that humans are social animals, and that the need
for social contact is vital for mental health.
An important issue raised by the results is that the females
in this sample reported higher levels of sense of belonging than
males, but reported similar levels of stress and depression.
Previous research has shown women to report higher levels of stress
(Rathod et al., 2000; Wilson, Warton, & Louw, 1998) and depression
(Compton et al., 2000; Gutierrez et al., 2000; Hill & Hilton,
1999; Roberts, Shema, Kaplan, & Strawbridge, 2000) than men,
and that sense of belonging is related to lower levels of stress
and depression. There would appear to be a contradiction in such
results, as one would expect that females, having a greater sense
of belonging, would also report lower levels of stress and depression.
Clearly, other factors are important when considering mental health.
One factor, place of residence, was investigated in this study.
Results indicated that place of residence was a predictor of stress
and depression over and above that of sense of belonging.
Results indicated that stress and depression were associated with
living in more densely populated areas. Stress and depression
have shown mixed results when analysed according to place of residence.
In regards to stress, some research indicates that rural residents
report more symptoms of stress than do city residents (Hays &
Zouari, 1995; Walker & Walker, 1988). There is also evidence
to show that rural residents report more life events than urban
residents (Linn, Husaini, Whitten-Stovall, & Broomes, 1989;
Neff & Husaini, 1987). Other studies, however, suggest
there is no difference in the types (Thomas & Groer, 1986)
and levels of psychological distress in urban and rural communities
(Horwell & McLaren, 2000; Hoyt, Odonnell, & Mack, 1995;
McLaren, Hopes, Jude, & Poon, 2000; Zitzow, 1992).
Conflicting results are also evident for depression. For
example, no differences in rates of clinical depression have been
reported for children (Larsson & Melin, 1992) and adults (O’Hara,
Kohout, & Wallace, 1985) living in rural and urban locations.
Other research however has indicated that those living in urban
areas have significantly higher rates of depression than do those
living in rural locations (Hauenstein & Boyd, 1994; Kovess,
Murphy, & Tousignant, 1987; Ying & Zhang, 1995).
Yet other research has demonstrated depression to be more prevalent
in rural areas (Cheng et al., 1995; Hays & Zouari, 1995; Zimbelman,
1987). It is to be noted, however, that place of residence
explained such a small percentage of variance in stress and depression
scores, it is clear that other factors are involved in this process.
The results of this study need to be considered in light of certain
limitations. One of the main limitations is in relation
to the composition of the sample. The findings based on
a predominately female sample (70%) warrant caution when generalizing
to the wider population, particularly men. The low response
rate is also an issue of concern. It is difficult to know
how the response rate may effect results, but it is to be noted
that the results in terms of gender differences for sense of belonging,
and the relationship between sense of belonging and mental health
indices, are consistent with previous research. One would
be particularly cautious with the results for males, as the ANOVAs
were conducted using very small numbers. Limitations associated
with self-report measures are also to be noted.
In light of these limitations, one may suggest that rural people
appear to be in an adequate position regarding sense of belonging,
stress and depression. Future research should focus on whether
sense of belonging is an adequate predictor of other mental health
indices in rural and urban populations. The role of place
of residence and other possible predictive factors need to be
explored. Recent Australian research demonstrated that although
there were no differences between rural and urban social workers
on physical health symptoms and burnout, models of strain differed
between the two groups of workers (Dollard, Winefield, & Winefield,
1999). Consequently, future research should investigate
if sense of belonging differentially predicts a range of mental
health variables in rural-urban populations.
In summary, the current research has indicated that residents
of differentially populated areas report similar levels of sense
of belonging in their community, but that increasing levels of
population were associated with higher levels of stress and depression.
Such results are in contrast to previous research documenting
evidence of poorer mental health in rural residents. Results
also indicated that sense of belonging is a significant predictor
of stress and depression. Those involved in mental health
interventions may benefit by taking sense of belonging in to account
when addressing mental health issues in the community.
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